Everything+Middle+East

The Middle East Region

__ **Geography** __  __ **Sumer - the first civilization** __   
 * = Where is Mesopotamia? || * The land between the __**Tigris**__ and __**Euphrates**__ rivers called the "**Fertile Crescent**" ||
 * = Why did people settle here? || * When the rivers flooded, they left behind fertile soil called **__silt__** and irrigated the fields with river water
 * The river valley was very fertile thus good for farming and a good place to start a civilization! ||
 * = What were the disadvantages to the living in the fertile crescent? || * Unpredictable flooding and periods of little or no rain
 * No natural barriers for protection
 * Limited natural resources ||
 * = What solutions did the Sumerians develop for these problems? || * Irrigation ditches were built to provide the fields with water and produce a surplus of crops
 * For defense, city walls were built
 * Goods were traded with other peoples to obtain raw materials ||

__**Sumerian Culture**__
 * Sumerians formed __**city states**__ - a city and its surrounding land that functioned much like an independent country would today
 * In the center of all cities was a walled temple with a ziggurat in the middle
 * __**Ziggurat**__ - a place of worship that also served as a city hall
 * **__City-states__** came under the rule of dynasties

__**The First Empire**__
 * The people of the fertile crescent were __**polytheistic**__, or believed in more than one god
 * To keep the gods happy, the Sumerians built huge ziggurats and offered sacrifices
 * Sumerian women had more rights than women in later civilizations
 * The Sumerians created a system of writing called __**cuneiform**__ which was used to keep records

**__ Major Achievements of the People of Mesopotamia __**
 * Sargon defeated the city-states of Sumer in about 2350 BCE
 * He conquered both northern and southern Mesopotamia, thus forming the first empire
 * **__Empire__** - brings together several previously independent peoples under the control of one ruler
 * The __**Babylonian empire**__ reached its peak during the reign of **__Hammurabi__**
 * **__Hammurabi__** created a single uniform code of laws known as __**Hammurabi's code**__
 * The code was engraved in stone and copies were placed all over the empire
 * An eye for an eye a tooth for a tooth
 * **__Arithmetic and geometry__** were used to build city walls and buildings, plan irrigation systems, and survey flooded fields
 * The Sumerians also developed a number system in base 60
 * **__Architectural innovations__** included: arches, columns, ramps, and the pyramid shaped design of the ziggurat
 * **__Cuneiform__** - the system of writing developed and used in Mesopotamia
 * Sumerians invented the wheel, the sail and the plow
 * They were the first people to use **__bronze__**
 * First empire
 * Hammurabi's code



__ **Who were the Hittites?** __


 * __**Hittites**-__ a group of Indo-European speakers; occupied __**Anatolia**__ (the area that is now turkey) in about 2000 B.C.
 * Separate Hittite city-states united around 1650 B.C. to form empire- capital city of **__Hattusas____.__**
 * Dominated Southwest Asia for 450 years, including Babylon.
 * Struggled with Egypt for control of northern Syria; then signed a peace treaty & pledged to help each other fight off future invaders.
 * Indo-European language used to communicate with one another; adopted __Akkadian__ (the language of the conquered Babylonians) for international use.
 * Excellent technology: light and easy chariots, and __**iron weapons.**__
 * **__Iron__** was easily available to the Hittites in the mountains of __Anatolia____.__
 * Despite military strength, the Hittite empire fell suddenly around 1190 B.C. when tribes attacked and burned Hattusas.
 * **~*The Hittites were mainly known for their use of __Iron__ in military technology (they had a superb military because of the skill of their iron workers)*~**

__ **Basic Facts** __

__ **Abraham and The Promised Land** __
 * Who founded it? ||< * Judaism was founded by Abraham ||
 * What made Judaism different from other religions of its time period? ||< * Jews were __**monotheistic**__ or believed in only one god ||
 * What is the holy book of Judaism? ||< * The Hebrew Bible, including the __**Torah**__ ||
 * Who are some important people in Jewish history? ||< * Abraham, Moses, Saul, David, Solomon ||
 * Who leads Jewish prayer? ||< * The Rabbi ||

__ **The Kingdom of Israel** __
 * In the Torah, god chose Abraham to be the father of the Hebrew people
 * Abraham lived in Ur but god commanded that he move his people to Canaan
 * The promise between god and Abraham is called a __**covenant**__
 * The Hebrews migrated to Egypt because of drought and threat of famine
 * At first the Egyptians welcomed the Hebrews but later, they were forced into slavery
 * Moses led the Hebrews out of slavery
 * God made a new covenant with Moses - **__The 10 Commandments__**
 * The Hebrews wandered 40 years in the desert and then arrived in Canaan
 * Once in Canaan, they were divided by god into 12 tribes


 * **__Saul__** was the first of three kings
 * **__King David__** succeeded Saul and was a very popular leader
 * King David united the tribes, established Jerusalem as the capital and founded a dynasty
 * David was succeeded by **__Solomon__**
 * Solomon built a trading empire and beautified Jerusalem
 * Built a great temple to glorify god and permanently house the ark of the covenant
 * The building projects required high taxes and forced labor
 * After Solomon's death the kingdom was divided in two: __Israel__ in the north and __Judah__ in the south
 * Solomon's temple was destroyed and rebuilt many times during history




 * < Introduction to Assyrian Empire

||< * Began around 850 B.C.
 * Ruled by kings, such as __King__ __**Sennacherib**__
 * Flat, exposed land- easy to be attacked from nearby mountain areas ||
 * < Military Organization ||< * Glorified military strength- soldiers well-equipped with iron dressings and metal and/or iron armor
 * Advanced planning skills. __ex__; before attacks, dug beneath walls of enemy city to weaken them, and then attack from all different angles and directions ||
 * < Expansion of Assyrian Empire ||< * Between 850-650 B.C., kings of Assyria defeated Syria, Palestine, & Babylonia
 * Assyrian kings controlled dependent provinces by choosing rulers by support- system of __**governmental management**__
 * Military campaigns added to empire- if a conquered people refused to pay tax, their city was destroyed and its people were exiled ||
 * < Assyrian Culture ||< * King Sennacherib established capital at __**Nineveh**__ along Tigris River
 * Nineveh ruins held carved sculptures- two main artistic subjects: brutal military campaigns and the lion hunt
 * __King **Ashurbanipal**__ created one of ancient world's largest libraries- over 20,000 clay tablets from throughout Fertile Crescent
 * Modern characteristics to library- collection organized by subject matter; cataloged ||
 * < Decline of the Empire ||< * Ashurbanipal's death led to fall of Nineveh
 * 612 B.C. - army of __Medes__, __Chaldeans__, and others destroyed Nineveh- many rejoiced
 * Chaldeans made Babylon their capital around 600 B.C.
 * __King **Nebuchadnezzar**__ restored the city with famous hanging gardens, later listed as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world
 * Nebuchadnezzar's empire fell quickly after his death as well ||



__ ** Rise of Persia ** __ >
 * Based empire on tolerance and diplomacy, and strong military backed up their policies.
 * Indo-Europeans first migrated from Central Europe and southern Russia to Fertile Crescent around 1000 B.C. (modern day Iran)
 * 550 B.C. - Persian king, __**Cyrus**__, began to conquer several neighboring kingdoms between 550-539 B.C., eventually controlling a span of 2,000 miles from Indus River (east) to Anatolia (west).
 * Cyrus was extremely kind to conquered people- showed tolerant view of empire.
 * allowed Jews to return to Jerusalem in 538 B.C. - Jews rebuilt their city and temple.
 * Cyrus was killed in battle against nomadic intruders in 530 B.C. //[Cyrus-->]//

__**Persian Rule**__


 * Cyrus's son, __**Cambyses**__, continued to expand empire by conquering Egypt.
 * Didn't follow his father's example- scorned Egyptian religion.
 * Cambyses ruled for only eight years, then died; widespread rebellions caused empire to become fragile.
 * Cambyses's successor, __**Darius**__, was once the king's bodyguard- seized throne around 522 B.C.
 * Established a well-organized and efficient administration.
 * Led conquests to present-day Afghanistan, and river valleys of India- Empire extended over 2,500 miles.
 * Darius's only failure was that of conquering Greece.
 * He divided his empire into 20 provinces- people could practice their own religion, speak own language, and follow own laws- "nationalities"- Darius still ruled with absolute power.
 * Installed a governor (__**satrap**__) in each province to rule locally, a military leader, and tax collector.
 * Excellent road system allowed for quick communication- __**Royal Road**-__ ran from Susa in Persia to Sardis in Anatolia (total of 1,677 miles).
 * Metal coins of a standard value became available through the whole empire, promoting trade.

__**Persian Legacy**__

> >
 * Persia was so fortunate while people of Fertile Crescent suffered war, conquest, famine, etc.
 * Persian prophet, __**Zoroaster**__, taught that earth is a battleground where a struggle is fought between good and evil; at the end of time, Ahura Mazda (the only god in Zoroastrian religion) will judge everyone according on their fight for the good spirit in life.
 * Zoroastrian religion eventually declined in the A.D. 600s.
 * Persians brought political order to Southwest Asia, by preserving ideas from earlier cultures and civilizations.
 * The powerful dynasty established by Cyrus lasted 200 years.
 * In 334 B.C., Alexander the Great led an army into Anatolia to defeat Darius III of Persia, crushing them.


 * Who founded Christianity? || * __**Jesus**__ of Nazareth- born around 6 to 4 B.C. ||
 * What did Jesus teach? || * He did good works; reportedly performed miracles
 * teachings contained many ideas from Jewish tradition, such as monotheism & the Ten Commandments
 * emphasized God's personal relationship with individuals ||
 * How did Christianity spread? || * Jesus had 12 men who followed him, known as __**apostles**__, who later spread his works and teachings
 * people became touched by Jesus's messages, especially the poor ||
 * What is the Holy book of Christianity? || * The __**Bible**__ (Old and New Testaments)
 * originally, main source of his teachings were the Gospels ||

__**Christianity Spreads** __ __ **Paul's Mission** __ __**Diaspora**__- dispersal of the Jews; those who were exiled and who were able to escape the Roman control. __**Christians are Persecuted**__
 * Who was Paul? || * O ne apostle who was originally an enemy of Christianity, but then had a vision of Jesus and from then on followed him and spread his teachings ||
 * What did Paul do? || * He wrote influential letters, called __**Epistles**__, to groups of believers
 * He stressed that Jesus was the son of God who died for people’s sins, and that Christianity should welcome all converts ||


 * Christians posed a problem to Roman rulers- refused to worship Roman gods
 * Christians often used as scapegoats for political and economic problems
 * Were exiled, imprisoned, or executed for not worshiping the Roman gods; others killed in circus arenas for entertainment
 * Some Christians posed as __martyrs__

__**Christians Become Powerful**__


 * Christianity became powerful force by late third century A.D.
 * __**Constantine**__- first Roman emperor to accept Christianity; he prayed for divine help in battle and then saw an image of a cross- a symbol of Christianity
 * In the next year, he ended the persecution of the Christians
 * __**Bishops**__- priests who supervised several local churches
 * __**Peter**__- apostle who traveled to Rome and became the first bishop
 * Later bishops claimed that Peter was the first __**pope**__, or the father of the Christian Church





__ **Basic Facts** __

__ **Muhammad The Prophet** __
 * = Who founded Islam? || * Muhammad the prophet was the founder of Islam ||
 * = What is the holy book of Islam? || * The **__Qur'an__** ||
 * = What are the basic beliefs of Islam? || * The __**Five Pillars of Islam**__
 * Belief in one god called **__Allah__** (monotheistic) ||
 * = What are some important terms associated with Islam? || * **__Mecca__**, __**Medina**__, **__Hegira__**, **__Ramadan__** **__hajj__**, **__Allah__**, **__Muslim__**, **__mosque__**, **__Qur'an__**, **__Shi'a__**, **__Sunni__** ||

__ **The Five Pillars of Islam** __
 * After Allah spoke to Muhammad, **__Muhammad__** began to teach that Allah was the one and only god
 * When people that opposed his teachings attacked some of his followers, he moved from **__Mecca__** to **__Medina__**
 * This "**__Hijrah__**" attracted many followers to Muhammad
 * About 8 years later he returned to Mecca and defeated the government
 * Most Meccans converted to Islam


 * = Faith || * Muslims must testify that Allah is the only god and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah ||
 * = Prayer || * Five times a day Muslims face toward Mecca to pray
 * They may assemble at a Mosque or wherever they may be ||
 * = Alms || * Muslims must support the less fortunate and give money to the poor ||
 * = Fasting || * Muslims must fast between dawn and sunset during the holy month of Ramadan ||
 * = Pilgrimage || * All Muslims that are physically and financially able to perform the hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) must do so at least once in his or her lifetime ||

__** Islam Spreads **__
 * Arab fighters spread Islam through war
 * Treated Christians and Jews as "people of the book" because they were monotheistic
 * Non-believers were taxed
 * Many people chose to convert
 * Also spread through trade and **__cultural diffusion__**
 * **__Ibn Battuta__** - spread Islam, allowed women to vote, and created public schools

__**Art and Sciences Flourish (GOLDEN AGE!!!)**__


 * Many people started to do __**calligraphy**__ or the art of beautiful handwriting because images of living beings were discouraged
 * Literature included //The Thousand and One Nights//, a collection of fairy tales, parables and legends
 * Advances in medicine were made such as a book on how to treat Smallpox and Measles
 * Muslim scientists solved problems by **__conducting experiments__** instead of using logical reasoning
 * **__Algebra__** was created in mathematics
 * Studies of **__optics__** were later used to develop lenses for telescopes and microscopes
 * Lunar calendar to keep track of the holy month of Ramadan
 * __ Important Terms Defined __**
 * **__Mecca__** - Muhammad's home that is now the Islamic holy land
 * **__Medina__** - When Muhammad fled Mecca, he went to Medina and gained followers
 * **__Hegira__** - Muhammad's flight from Mecca to Medina because the people in Mecca wanted him dead
 * **__Ramadan__** - The holy month in which Muslims fast from sunrise to sunset
 * **__Hajj__** - The pilgramage to Mecca that Muslims must make at least once in their lifetime
 * **__Allah__** - God
 * **__Muslim__** - A person that practices Islam
 * **__Mosque__** - The place of worship for Muslims
 * **__Qur'an__** - The islamic holy book
 * **__Shi'a__ -** A sect of Islam that directly follows the teachings of Muhammad and takes the Qur'an literally (Islamic fundamentalism, minority)
 * **__Sunni__** - A sect of Islam that is more modern




 * = What were the Crusades? || * __**Crusade**__- "holy war"
 * Pope __**Urban II**__ wanted to gain control of the Holy Land (Jerusalem) ||
 * = Goals of the Crusades || * The European Christians wanted to regain the holy land of Jerusalem from the Muslims
 * The Muslims also threatened Constantinople and the Europeans wanted to stop Muslim attacks ||
 * = What were the effects of the Crusades? || * Trade was expanded which benefited both the Christians and Muslims
 * The fall of Constantinople weakened the Byzantine empire
 * A legacy of hatred between Christians and Muslims was left behind that still exists today ||
 * = Who was Saladin? || * The most famous Muslim leader of that time period
 * He captured Jerusalem after the First and Second Crusades
 * He signed a truce with __Richard the Lion-Hearted__ after many battles of the Third Crusade
 * Jerusalem remained under Muslim control but Saladin promised that unarmed Christian pilgrims could freely visit the city's holy places ||



__**Osman - the founder of the Ottoman Empire** __



__**Mehmed the conqueror** __
 * Osman named his followers __Ottomans__
 *  Osman built a small Muslim state in Anatolia between 1300 and 1326
 *  Osman’s successors expanded by buying land, forming alliances with other emirs, and conquering others

<span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">**__ Suleyman the magnificent __** <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">
 * <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Mehmed the conqueror launched an attack on Constantinople in 1453
 * <span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; fontsizeadjust: none; fontstretch: normal;"> <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">He conquered Constantinople and opened it to new citizens of many religions and backgrounds who helped rebuild the city
 * <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Constantinople became known as __**Istanbul**__

__ **The slow decline of the empire** __ <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">
 * <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Ottomans controlled trade routes in Africa and dominated the whole eastern Mediterranean
 * <span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; fontsizeadjust: none; fontstretch: normal;"> <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Waged war with central Europeans north Africans and central Asians
 * <span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; fontsizeadjust: none; fontstretch: normal;"> <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Most powerful monarch on earth
 * <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Created a law code
 * <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Simplified and limited taxes
 * <span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; fontsizeadjust: none; fontstretch: normal;"> <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Systematized and reduced government bureaucracy
 * <span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; fontsizeadjust: none; fontstretch: normal;"> <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">These changes improved the lives of most citizens
 * <span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; fontsizeadjust: none; fontstretch: normal;"> <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">**__Devshrime system__** – under this system, the sultan’s army drafted boys from the peoples of conquered Christian territories. The army educated them, converted them to Islam, and trained them as soldiers
 * <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Hired **__caliphs__** (religious governors) and **__Viziers__** (advisors)
 * <span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; fontsizeadjust: none; fontstretch: normal;"> <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">An elite force on soldiers known as **__janissaries__** was trained to be loyal to the sultan only. They were the heart of the ottoman war machine
 * <span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; fontsizeadjust: none; fontstretch: normal;"> <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">In accordance with Islamic law, the ottomans granted freedom of worship to other religious communities
 * <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">These communities were called "__**millets**__" or nations
 * <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Each millet was allowed to follow its own religious laws and practices
 * <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">The head of the millets reported to the sultan and his staff
 * <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">This kept conflict from arising among the various religious groups in the ottoman empire
 * <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Art and literature also flourished under Sulyman’s rule **((GOLDEN AGE!!!))**


 * <span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; fontsizeadjust: none; fontstretch: normal;"> <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Despite sulyman’s achievements, the Ottoman Empire was losing ground
 * <span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; fontsizeadjust: none; fontstretch: normal;"> <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Suleyman set a pattern for weak **__sultans__** (kings) by isolating his sons from education and the outside world and his sons doing the same thing.
 * <span style="font-size: 140%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Ottoman Empire became known as the "sick man of Europe"